Chapter 14 Overloaded Operations and Conversions

Exercise 14.1: In what ways does an overloaded operator differ from a built-in opera-tor? In what ways are overloaded operators the same as the built-in operators?

// 区别:重载运算符本质是函数调用,对于定义了求值顺序(逗号,逻辑与、逻辑或)的运算符,重载版本无法保留。
// 相同:要求的运算对象个数,优先级和结合律和内置版本一致
// 另外,无法重载语言中不存在的运算符,e.g. **

Exercise 14.2: Write declarations for the overloaded input, output, addition, and compound-assignment operators for Sales_data.

Sales_data operator+(const Sales_data &lhs, const Sales_data &rhs) {
    Sales_data sum = lhs;  // copy data members from lhs into sum
    sum.combine(rhs);      // add data members from rhs into sum
    return sum;
}

// transactions contain ISBN, number of copies sold, and sales price
istream &operator>>(istream &is, Sales_data &item) {
    double price = 0;
    is >> item.bookNo >> item.units_sold >> price;
    item.revenue = price * item.units_sold;
    return is;
}

ostream &operator<<(ostream &os, const Sales_data &item) {
    os << item.isbn() << " " << item.units_sold << " "
       << item.revenue << " " << item.avg_price();
    return os;
}

Exercise 14.3: Both string and vector define an overloaded == that can be used to compare objects of those types. Assuming svec1 and svec2 are vectors that hold strings, identify which version of == is applied in each of the following expressions:

(a) "cobble" == "stone" 
(b) svec1[0] == svec2[0] 
(c) svec1 == svec2 
(d) "svec1[0] == "stone"

---
(a) 字符串字面值比较,使用针对const char*的版本,如果没有可能隐式转换为string,使用为string定义的==。
(b) string定义的==
(c) vector定义的==,元素比较时还会使用string定义的==
(d) string定义的==

Exercise 14.4: Explain how to decide whether the following should be class members:

(a)% (b)%= (c)++ (d)-> (e)<< (f)&& (g)== (h)()

---
(a) 由于可能交互运算对象,应该定义为普通函数
(b) 复合赋值一般定义为成员函数
(c) 递增++一般定义为成员函数
(d) 成员访问必须定义为成员函数
(e) 移位运算符重载为IO时,定义为普通函数
(f) 一般不重载,如果要重载应该定义为普通函数
(g) 一般不重载,如果要重载应该定义为普通函数
(h) 调用运算符必须定义为成员函数

Exercise 14.5: In exercise 7.40 from § 7.5.1 (p. 291) you wrote a sketch of one of the following classes. Decide what, if any, overloaded operators your class should provide.

(a) Book (b) Date (c) Employee (d) Vehicle (e) Object (f) Tree

Exercise 14.6: Define an output operator for your Sales_data class.

ostream &operator<<(ostream &os, const Sales_data &item) {
    os << item.isbn() << " " << item.units_sold << " "
       << item.revenue << " " << item.avg_price();
    return os;
}

Exercise 14.7: Define an output operator for you String class you wrote for the exercises in § 13.5 (p. 531).

std::ostream &operator<<(std::ostream &out, const String &s) {
    if (s.element) {
        auto it = s.element;
        while (it != s.first_free) {
            out << *it++;
        }
    }
    return out;
}

Exercise 14.8: Define an output operator for the class you chose in exercise 7.40 from§ 7.5.1 (p. 291).

Exercise 14.9: Define an input operator for your Sales_data class.

// transactions contain ISBN, number of copies sold, and sales price
istream &operator>>(istream &is, Sales_data &item) {
    double price = 0;
    is >> item.bookNo >> item.units_sold >> price;
      if (is) item.revenue = price * item.units_sold;
      else item = Sales_data();
    return is;
}

Exercise 14.10: Describe the behavior of the Sales_data input operator if given the following input:

(a) 0-201-99999-9 10 24.95 (b) 10 24.95 0-210-99999-9

---
(a) 输入流不会遇到错误
(b) 估计:输入流出错,对象被使用默认构造函数的临时对象赋值;实际:测试输入流cin没有出错,会进行类型转换。

Exercise 14.11: What, if anything, is wrong with the following Sales_data input operator? What would happen if we gave this operator the data in the previous exercise?

istream& operator>>(istream& in, Sales_data& s) {
    double price;
    in >> s.bookNo >> s.units_sold >> price; 
      s.revenue = s.units_sold * price; return in;
}

---
10 24.95 0-210-99999-9
10 24 22.8 0.95

Exercise 14.12: Define an input operator for the class you used in exercise 7.40 from § 7.5.1 (p. 291). Be sure the operator handles input errors.

Exercise 14.13: Which other arithmetic operators (Table 4.1 (p. 139)), if any, do youthink Sales_data ought to support? Define any you think the class should include.

// 好像没有了

Exercise 14.14: Why do you think it is more efficient to define operator+ to call operator+= rather than the other way around?

// 可以使用已经定义的函数,显然更方便

Exercise 14.15: Should the class you chose for exercise 7.40 from § 7.5.1 (p. 291) defineany of the arithmetic operators? If so, implement them. If not, explain why not.

Exercise 14.16: Define equality and inequality operators for your StrBlob (§ 12.1.1,p. 456), StrBlobPtr (§ 12.1.6, p. 474), StrVec (§ 13.5, p. 526), and String (§ 13.5,p. 531) classes.

Exercise 14.17: Should the class you chose for exercise 7.40 from § 7.5.1 (p. 291) definethe equality operators? If so, implement them. If not, explain why not.

Exercise 14.18: Define relational operators for your StrBlob, StrBlobPtr, StrVec,and String classes.

Exercise 14.19: Should the class you chose for exercise 7.40 from § 7.5.1 (p. 291) definethe relational operators? If so, implement them. If not, explain why not.

Exercise 14.20: Define the addition and compound-assignment operators for yourSales_data class.

Exercise 14.21: Write the Sales_data operators so that + does the actual additionand += calls +. Discuss the disadvantages of this approach compared to the way these operators were defined in § 14.3 (p. 560) and § 14.4 (p. 564).

// 如果定义+做实际的工作,+=调用+,效率不高
// +返回值是一个新的类,+=对+的使用,需要临时对象参与赋值;翻过来如果实现+=做实际的工作,效率高些

Exercise 14.22: Define a version of the assignment operator that can assign a string representing an ISBN to a Sales_data.

Sales_data &Sales_data::operator=(const std::string &s) {
    bookNo = s;
    units_sold = 0;
    revenue = 0;
    return *this;
}

Exercise 14.23: Define an initializer_list assignment operator for your versionof the StrVec class.

Exercise 14.24: Decide whether the class you used in exercise 7.40 from § 7.5.1 (p. 291)needs a copy- and move-assignment operator. If so, define those operators.

Exercise 14.25: Implement any other assignment operators your class should define.Explain which types should be used as operands and why.

Exercise 14.26: Define subscript operators for your StrVec, String, StrBlob, and StrBlobPtr classes.

Exercise 14.27: Add increment and decrement operators to your StrBlobPtr class.

Exercise 14.28: Define addition and subtraction for StrBlobPtr so that these operators implement pointer arithmetic (§ 3.5.3, p. 119).

// arithmetic
inline StrBlobPtr operator+(const StrBlobPtr &lhs, std::size_t n) {
    StrBlobPtr ret = lhs;
    ret.curr += n;
    return ret;
}

inline StrBlobPtr operator-(const StrBlobPtr &lhs, std::size_t n) {
    StrBlobPtr ret = lhs;
    ret.curr -= n;
    return ret;
}

inline StrBlobPtr operator+(std::size_t n, const StrBlobPtr &rhs) {
    return operator+(rhs, n);
}

inline std::ptrdiff_t operator-(const StrBlobPtr &lhs, const StrBlobPtr &rhs) {
    return static_cast<std::ptrdiff_t >(lhs.curr) - static_cast<std::ptrdiff_t >(rhs.curr);
}

Exercise 14.29: We did not define a const version of the increment and decrement operators. Why not?

// 递增递减运算符本身就是修改对象状态的运算符,和const语义违背,当然不能定义const版本

Exercise 14.30: Add dereference and arrow operators to your StrBlobPtr class andto the ConstStrBlobPtr class that you defined in exercise 12.22 from § 12.1.6 (p. 476).Note that the operators in constStrBlobPtr must return const references becausethe data member in constStrBlobPtr points to a const vector.

Exercise 14.31: Our StrBlobPtr class does not define the copy constructor, assign-ment operator, or a destructor. Why is that okay?

// StrBlobPtr含有两个数据成员,值语义,编译器合成的版本工作的很好,没有特殊需求无需自定义了

Exercise 14.32: Define a class that holds a pointer to a StrBlobPtr. Define the over-loaded arrow operator for that class.

class StrBlobPtrPtr {
public:
    StrBlobPtrPtr(StrBlobPtr *p) : ptr(p) {}
    StrBlobPtr &operator*() { return *ptr; }
    StrBlobPtr operator->() { return *ptr; }
private:
    StrBlobPtr *ptr;
};

Exercise 14.33: How many operands may an overloaded function-call operator take?

// 可以有默认参数。同普通函数调用一致,定义有多少个参数,使用时就需要传几个参数

Exercise 14.34: Define a function-object class to perform an if-then-else operation: The call operator for this class should take three parameters. It should test its first parameter and if that test succeeds, it should return its second parameter; otherwise, it should return its third parameter.

class Demo {
public:
    int operator()(int a, int b, int c) {
        return a ? b : c;
    }
};

Exercise 14.35: Write a class like PrintString that reads a line of input from anistream and returns a string representing what was read. If the read fails, return the empty string.

Exercise 14.36: Use the class from the previous exercise to read the standard input,storing each line as an element in a vector.

Exercise 14.37: Write a class that tests whether two values are equal. Use that objectand the library algorithms to write a program to replace all instances of a given valuein a sequence.

Exercise 14.38: Write a class that tests whether the length of a given string matches a given bound. Use that object to write a program to report how many words in an input file are of sizes 1 through 10 inclusive.

Exercise 14.39: Revise the previous program to report the count of words that are sizes1 through 9 and 10 or more.

Exercise 14.40: Rewrite the biggies function from § 10.3.2 (p. 391) to use function-object classes in place of lambdas.

Exercise 14.41: Why do you suppose the new standard added lambdas? Explain when you would use a lambda and when you would write a class instead.

// 为了支持函数式编程范式
// 替代一次性的功能函数时;如果频繁使用,则应该使用类,避免重复写类似的lambda。

Exercise 14.42: Using library function objects and adaptors, define an expression to

(a) Count the number of values that are greater than 1024 
(b) Find the first string that is not equal to pooh
(c) Multiply all values by 2

---
(a) count_if(ivec.begin(), ivec.end(), bind(greater<int>(), _1, 1024));
(b) auto ret = find_if(svec.begin(), svec.end(), bind(equal_to<int>(), _1, "pooh"));
(c) transform(ivec.begin(), ivec.end(), ivec.begin(), bind(multiplies<int>(), _1, 2));

Exercise 14.43: Using library function objects, determine whether a given int value is divisible by any element in a container of ints.

all_of(ivec.begin(), ivec.end(), bind(equal_to<int>(), bind(modulus<int>(), _1, 2), 0));

Exercise 14.44: Write your own version of a simple desk calculator that can handle binary operations.

int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }
map<string, function<int(int, int)>> binops = {
        {"+", add},
        {"-", std::minus<int>()},
        {"*", [](int a, int b) { return a * b; }},
        {"/", std::divides<int>()},
};
cout << binops["+"](10, 5) << endl;
cout << binops["-"](10, 5) << endl;
cout << binops["*"](10, 5) << endl;
cout << binops["/"](10, 5) << endl;

Exercise 14.45: Write conversion operators to convert a Sales_data to string andto double. What values do you think these operators should return?

// conversion operator
// string应该返回ISBN,double就返回总收入
explicit operator std::string() const { return bookNo; }
explicit operator double() const { return revenue; }

Exercise 14.46: Explain whether defining these Sales_data conversion operators isa good idea and whether they should be explicit.

// 可以定义;应该为explicit

Exercise 14.47: Explain the difference between these two conversion operators:

struct Integral {
       operator const int();
       operator int() const;
};

---
// 相当于是对const的类型转换操作符的重载,适用函数匹配规则,查找最佳匹配
operator const int(); // Integral对象不是const的时候匹配,const是顶层const会被忽略
operator int() const; // Integral对象是const的时候匹配

Exercise 14.48: Determine whether the class you used in exercise 7.40 from § 7.5.1(p. 291) should have a conversion to bool. If so, explain why, and explain whether theoperator should be explicit. If not, explain why not.

Exercise 14.49: Regardless of whether it is a good idea to do so, define a conversionto bool for the class from the previous exercise.

Exercise 14.50: Show the possible class-type conversion sequences for the initializations of ex1 and ex2. Explain whether the initializations are legal or not.

struct LongDouble { 
    LongDouble(double = 0.0); 
    operator double(); 
    operator float();
};
LongDouble ldObj;
int ex1 = ldObj;
float ex2 = ldObj;

---
ex1 有二义性,floatdouble都可以转换为int,编译器认为转换时同一级别,无法区分
ex2 匹配operator float();

Exercise 14.51: Show the conversion sequences (if any) needed to call each version of calc and explain why the best viable function is selected.

void calc(int);
void calc(LongDouble); 
double dval; 
calc(dval);// which calc?                

---
可能是double->int,或者double->LongDouble
实验结果是:double->int的转换优先级高

Exercise 14.52: Which operator+, if any, is selected for each of the addition expressions? List the candidate functions, the viable functions, and the type conversions on the arguments for each viable function:

struct LongDouble {
    // memberoperator+forillustrationpurposes;+isusuallyanonmember 
      LongDouble operator+(const SmallInt&);
    // other members as in § 14.9.2 (p. 587)
};
LongDouble operator+(LongDouble&, double); SmallInt si;
LongDouble ld;
ld = si + ld;
ld = ld + si;

---
ld = si + ld; 
// 没有匹配参数的重载运算符,编译器尝试使用内置+运算符,由于LongDouble可用转换为double和float,二义性。
// error: ambiguous overload for 'operator+' (operand types are 'SmallInt' and 'LongDouble')
// candidate: operator+(int, double) <built-in>
// candidate: operator+(int, float) <built-in>

ld = ld + si; 
// 精确匹配:LongDouble operator+(const SmallInt&);

Exercise 14.53: Given the definition of SmallInt on page 588, determine whether the following addition expression is legal. If so, what addition operator is used? If not, how might you change the code to make it legal?

SmallInt s1;
double d = s1 + 3.14;

---
// error: ambiguous overload for 'operator+' (operand types are 'SmallInt' and 'double')
// candidate: operator+(int, double) <built-in>
// candidate: SmallInt operator+(const SmallInt&, const SmallInt&)

// 有两种可能,一种是double->int->SmallInt,然后调用重载的+运算符
// 另外一种就是si->int->double,然后执行内置的+运算符;编译器无法区分,二义性。

Notes

  • 当运算符被用于类类型的对象时,C++语言允许我们为其指定新的含义;同时,也能自定义类类型之间的转换规则。和内置类型的转换一样,类类型转换隐式的将一种类型的对象转换为另一种所需类型的对象。

  • 当运算符作用于类类型的运算对象时,可以通过运算符重载重新定义该运算符的含义。明智的使用运算符重载能令程序更易于编写和阅读。

  • 重载的运算符是具有特殊名字的函数除了重载的调用运算符operator()外,其他重载运算符不能含有默认实参

  • 运算符函数或者是类的成员,或者至少含有一个类类型的参数(因此运算符重载无法作用于内置类型);对于重载的运算符,其优先级和结合律与对应的内置运算符保持一致。

  • e.g. error: 'int operator+(int, int)' must have an argument of class or enumerated type
    
  • 通常情况,将运算符作用于类型正确的实参,从而以这种间接方式调用重载的运算符函数。然而,也可以像普通函数一样直接调用运算符函数。

  • 使用重载的运算符本质上是一次函数调用,所以关于运算对象求值顺序的规则无法应用到重载的运算符上。特别是,逻辑与、逻辑或和逗号运算符的运算对象求值顺序规则无法保留下来。&&和||运算符的重载版本也无法保留内置的运算符的短路求值属性,两个运算对象总是会被求值。还有一个原因使得一般不重载逗号和取地址运算符:C++语言已经定义了这两种运算符作用于类类型的特殊含义(什么特殊含义?&应该是用来表示引用了,那么逗号呢?)。
  • 通常情况下,不应该重载逗号、取地址、逻辑与和逻辑或运算符
  • 重载运算符的返回类型通常应该与内置版本的返回类型兼容:逻辑运算符和关系运算符应该返回bool,算术运算符应该返回一个类类型的值(新创建的对象),赋值运算符和复合赋值运算符应该返回左侧运算对象的一个引用(方便连接多个动作)
  • 选择作为成员或非成员函数
    • 赋值(=)、下标([ ])、调用(())和成员访问箭头(—>)运算符必须是成员(感觉和语言实现特别是类的相关,所以必须是成员函数)。
    • 复合赋值运算符一般来说应该是成员,但并非必须,这一点与赋值运算符略有不同。
    • 改变对象状态的运算符或者与给定类型密切相关的运算符,如递增、递减和解引用运算符,通常应该是成员。
    • 具有对称性的运算符可能转换任意一端的运算对象,例如算术、相等性、关系和位运算符等等,因此它们通常应该是普通的非成员函数。当把一个运算符定义为成员函数时,它的左侧运算对象必须是运算符所属类的一个对象而这会限制类对象的使用场景,特别是可以交换运算对象的运算符中,所以对这种运算符(一般是二元运算符)定义为普通的函数。
  • 如果为类定义IO运算符,则其必须是非成员函数,IO运算符通常要读写类的非公有数据成员,所以IO运算符一般声明为友元。
  • 输入运算符必须处理输入可能失败的情况,而输出运算符不需要。
  • 如果一个类在逻辑上有相等性的含义,则该类应该定义operator==
  • 如果存在唯一一种逻辑可靠的<定义,则应该考虑为这个类定义<运算符。如果类同时还包含==,则当且仅当<的定义和==产生的结果一致时才定义<运算符。
  • 如果一个类包含下标运算符,则它通常会定义两个版本:一个返回普通引用,另一个是类的常量成员并返回常量引用
  • 箭头运算符永远不能丢掉成员访问这个最基本的含义。当重载箭头时,可以改变的是箭头从哪个对象中获取成员,而箭头获取成员这一事实则永远不变

    • 对于point->mem的表达式,point必须是指向类对象的指针或者是一个重载了operator->的类的对象。根据point类型的不同,point->mem分别等价于已下两种情况。其执行过程如下:

      (*point).mem;                   // point 是一个内置的指针类型
      point.operator->()->mem;      // Point 是类的一个对象
      
  • 如果point是指针类型,则应用内置的箭头运算符,表达式等价于1。首先解引用该指针,然后从所得的对象中获取指定的成员。
  • 如果point是定义了operator->的类的一个对象,则使用point.operator->()的结果来获取mem。其中,如果该结果是一个指针,则执行上一步;如果该结果本身含有重载的operator->,则重复当前步骤。最终,当这一过程结束的时候,程序或者返回了所需的内容,或者产生了错误信息。(原来如此,可以嵌套迭代
  • 重载的箭头运算符必须返回类的指针或者自定义了箭头运算符的某个类的对象。
  • 如果类定义了调用运算符,则该类的对象称为函数对象(function object)。因为可以调用这种对象,所以说这些对象的“行为像函数一样”。
  • 编写lambda后,编译器将该表达式翻译成一个未命名类的未命名对象

  • 当一个lambda表达式通过引用捕获变量时,将由程序员负责确保lambda执行时所引用的对象确实存在。因此,编译器可以直接使用该引用而无须在lambda产生的类中将其存储为数据成员。相反,通过值捕获的变量被拷贝到lambda中。因此,这种lambda产生的类必须为每个值捕获的变量建立对应的数据成员,同时创造构造函数。

  • Classes generated from a lambda expression have a deleted default constructor, deleted assignment operators, and a default destructor. Whether the class has a defaulted or deleted copy/move constructor depends in the usual ways on the types of the captured data members。
    
    // 这里应该指的是"具有值捕获的lambda": Classes Representing Lambdas with Captures
    
  • C++语言中有几种可调用的对象:函数、函数指针、lambda表达式、bind创建的对象以及重载了函数调用运算符的类
  • 调用形式(call signature):不同类型的可调用对象可能共享同一种调用形式。调用形式指明了调用返回的类型以及传递给调用的实参类型。一种调用类型对应一个函数类型。(应该可理解为函数原型)
  • 转换构造函数和类型转换运算符共同定义了类类型转换(class-type conversions),这样的转换有时也被称作用户定义的类型转换(user-defined conversion)

  • 一个类型转换函数必须是类的成员函数;它不能声明返回类型,形参列表页必须为空。类型转换函数通常应该是const。

  • 一个类型转换运算符(conversion operator)是类的一种特殊成员,它负责将一个类类型的值转换成其他类型。

  • operator type() const;
    
  • C++11新标准引入了显式的类型转换运算符(explicit conversion operator),必须通过显式的强制类型转换才可以。不过该规定有一个例外,即如果表达式被用作条件,则编译器会将显式的类型转换自动应用于它。换句话说,当表达式出现在下列位置时(注:基本上都是作为条件时),显式的类型转换将被隐式地执行:

    • if、while及do语句的条件部分
    • for语句头的条件表达式
    • 逻辑非运算符(!)、逻辑或运算符(&&)、逻辑与运算符(||)的运算对象
    • 条件运算符(? :)的条件表达式
  • 向bool的类型转换通常用在条件部分,因此operator bool一般定义为explicit的。
  • 通常情况下,不要为类定义相同的类型转换,也不要在类中定义两个及两个以上转换源或转换目标是算术类型的转换
    • 两个类提供相同的类型转换:A类定义了一个接受B类对象的转换构造函数,同时B类定义了一个转换目标是A类的类型转换运算符时,就说它们提供了相同的类型转换。
    • 定义了多个转换规则,而这些转换涉及的类型本身可以通过其他类型转换联系在一起。最典型的例子就是算术运算符。Note:当使用两个用户定义的类型转换时,如果转换函数之前或之后存在标准类型转换,则标准类型转换将决定最佳匹配到底是哪个
    • 参见“提示:类型转换与运算符P519”。一言以蔽之:除了显式地向bool类型的转换之外,我们应该尽量避免定义类型转换函数并尽可能地限制那些“显然正确”的非显式构造函数
  • 在调用重载函数时,如果需要额外的标准转换类型,则该转换的级别只有当所有可行函数都请求同一个用户定义的类型转换时才有用。如果所需的用户定义的类型转换不止一个,则该调用具有二义性
  • 当使用重载运算符作用于类类型的对象时,候选函数中包含该运算符的普通非成员版本和内置版本。除此之外,如果左侧运算对象是类类型,则定义在该类中的运算符的重载版本也包含在候选函数内。
  • 如果对同一个类既提供了转换目标是算术类型的类型转换,也提供了重载的运算符,则将会遇到重载运算符与内置运算符的二义性问题

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